Một độc giả hỏi câu hỏi này:

Tôi có một câu hỏi về việc sử dụng hai từ của "break".

Sự khác biệt của "The TV set is broken." và "The TV set broke." Tôi chưa hiểu lắm về nó trong một thời gian dài.

"The TV set is broken" là một tuyên bố về tình trạng của TV ngay bây thời điểm này. Nó không hoạt động.

"The TV set broke" là về những thứ đã xảy ra trong quá khứ. Nó đã từng hoạt động, nhưng nó đã "hỏng" và ngừng hoạt động.

Có nhiều tình huống trong đó bạn có thể sử dụng một trong hai. Ví dụ: nếu hiện giờ bạn có một chiếc TV bị hỏng, bạn có thể nói với ai đó "It's broken" hay "It broke."

Nhưng có những tình huống khác trong đó bạn chỉ có thể sử dụng một. Ví dụ:

Nếu bạn mua TV mới và nó không hoạt động khi bạn mua, bạn có thể nói "It's broken" . Nhưng trường hợp bạn không biết nó đã ngừng hoạt động khi nào hoặc có lẽ nó chẳng bao giờ hoạt động kể từ khi nó được sản xuất. Vì vậy, bạn sẽ không thể nói "It broke."
Nếu TV của bạn bị hỏng nhưng sau đó bạn đã sửa nó, bạn có thể nói  "It broke" nhưng không thể nói "It's broken."

Thế Anh
www.Uviet.net

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1. So + adj + be + S + that clause So + adv + auxiliary verb + S + main verb + O + that clause

- Mẫu câu đảo ngữ so…that để mô tả hiện tượng, hay sự việc ở một mức độ tính chất mà có thể gây nên hậu quả, kêt quả tương ứng

Ex: So terrible was the storm that a lot of houses were swept away. (Trận bão khủng khiếp đến nỗi nhiều căn nhà bị cuốn phăng đi) So beautifully did he play the guitar that all the audience appreciated him

2. Then comes/come + S, as + clause.

Dùng then (= afterwards: thế rồi, cuối cùng, rồi) - Để nêu ra sự vc gì đó cuối cùng rồi cũng sẽ xảy ra như là kết cục tất nhiên của một quá trình, hoặc khi trình bảy hậu quả cuối cùng của sự vc hay hành động xảy ra. - Từ “come” được chia thì theo vế đằng sau Ex: Then came a divorce, as they had a routine now. (thế rồi ly hôn xảy ra, vì họ cứ cãi nhau hoài)

3. May + S + verb..

- Để diễn tả sự mong ước, bày tỏ điều gì đó hay một đề nghị, xin lỗi..

- Là một câu chúc

Ex: May I appologize at once for the misspelling of your surname in the letter from my assistant, Miss Dowdy (Tôi thành thật xin lỗi ông vì người trợ lý của tôi, cô Dowdy, đã viết sai tên họ của ông) May you all have happiness and luck (Chúc bạn may mắn và hạnh phúc)

4. It is no + comparative adj + than + V-ing

- Nghĩa là: thật sự không gì…hơn làm vc gì đó.

Ex: For me it is no more difficult than saying “I love you”. (Đối với tôi không gì khó hơn bằng nói “Anh Yêu Em")

5. S + V + far more + than + N

- Để diễn tả cái gì tác động hay xảy ra với sự vc hay đối tượng này nhiều hơn sự vc hay đối tượng kia.

Ex: The material world greatly influences far more young people than old people. (Thế giới vật chất sẽ ảnh hưởng đến thanh niên nhiều hơn người già) In many countries, far more teenagers than adults get infected with HIV.

6. S + love/like/wish + nothing more than to be + adj/past participle

- Dùng để nhấn mạnh ý nguyện, ướ muốn hay sở thích của ai đó. Nói một cách khác, mẫu câu này có nghĩa là: ai đó rất trong mong đc như thế này.

Ex: We wish nothing more than to be equally respected (Chúng tôi ko mong ước gì hơn là được đối xử công bằng).

7. S1 + is/are just like + S2 +was/were..

8. S + is/are + the same + as + S + was/were

- Dùng để so sánh sự trùng nhau hay giống nhau hoặc tương đồng giữa hai sự việc, hai người hoặc hai nhóm người ở hai thời điểm khác nhau.

Ex: My daughter is just like her mother was 35 yares ago when she was my classmate at Harvard University (Cô con gái tôi y hệt như mẹ nó cách đây 35 năm lúc bà còn là bạn học cùng lớp với tôi tại đại học Harvard) She is the same as she was (Cô ấy vẫn như ngày nào)

9. It is (not always) thought + adj + Noun phrase

- Để đưa ra quan niệm, ý kiến hay thái độ của xã hội, của công đồng hay nhiều người về vấn đề nào đó. Ngoài thought còn có thể dùng believed, hoped…

Ex: It is not always thought essential that Miss world must have the great appearance (Không nên luôn luôn cho rằng Hoa hậu thế giới cần phải có ngoại hình hấp dẫn)

10. As + V3/can be seen, S + V…

- Khi muốn nhắc lại, gợi lại ý, sự vc đã trình bày, đã đề cập đến trc đó với người đọc hay người nghe.

Ex: As spoken above, we are short of capital (Như đã nói ở trên, chúng ta thiếu vốn) As can be seen, a new school is going to be built on this site. (Như đã thấy, một trường học mới sẽ đc xây dựng trên khu đất này)

11. S + point(s)/ pointed out (to s.b) + that clause

- Dùng câu này khi bạn đưa ra ý kiến hay lời bình của mình. Point out nghĩa là chỉ ra vạch ra, cho thấy, cho rằng..

Ex: She point out that he was wrong (Cô ấy chỉ ra rằng anh ta đã lầm)

12. It is/was evident to someone + that clause

- Có nghĩa là đối với ai đó rõ ràng, nhất định là…

Ex: It was evident to them that someone gave him a hand to finish it (HỌ cứ nhất định rằng ai đó đã giúp anh ta một tay hoàn tất vc đó)

13. What + (S) + V… + is/was + (that) + S + V+..

- Có nghĩa là những gì đã xảy ra hoặc được thực hiện là…

Ex: What was said was (that) she had to leave (Những gì được nói là cô ấy phải ra đi) What I want you to do is that you take more care of yourself

14. N + Is + what + sth + is all about

- Để chỉ mục đích chính, hay chủ yếu của cái gì hay vấn đề nào đó mang lại.

Ex: Entertainment is what football is all about (Bóng đá cốt để giải trí)

15. S + be (just) + what S + V…

- Nhằm nhấn mạnh vấn đề hay ý kiến hoặc sự vc mà ai đó cần, quan tâm, hoặc muốn thực hiện.

Ex: It was just what I wanted (Đó là những gì tôi muốn) You are what God brings into my life (Em là những gì chúa ban cho cuộc đời anh)

16. V-ing +sth + be +adj-if not impossible

- Khi chúng ta miêu tả hành động mà cơ hội thành công rất thấp. Những adj ở đay thường là diffifult, hard, dangerous, adventurous…

Ex: Traveling alone into a jungle is adventurous – if not impossible (Đi một mình vào khu rừng là mạo hiểm – nếu không nói là không thể)

17. There + be + no + N + nor + N

- nghĩa là “không có…và cũng không có”

Ex: There is no food nor water (không có thức ăn và cũng không có nước

18. There isn’t/wasn’t time to V/be + adj

- Nghĩa là: “đã không kịp/không đủ thời gian”

Ex: there wasn’t time to identify what is was (Không kịp nhận ra đó là cái gì)

19. S+ may + put on a +adj + front but inside + S + adj..

- Nghĩa là : bề ngoài ai đó tỏ ra như thế này nhưng thực chất bên trong họ có những cảm xúc, trạng thái ngược lại.

Ex: You may put on a brave front but inside you are fearful and anxious (Bề ngoài bạn có vẻ dũng cảm nhưng thực chất bên trong bạn rất sợ hãi và lo âu)

20. S + see oneself + V-ing…

- Dùng mẫu câu trên để diễn tả khi ai đó có cơ hội được tận hưởng hay được thực hiện cái gì.

Ex: You can see yourself riding a cable-car in San Francisco (Bạn có cơ hội được đi cáp treo ở San Francisco)

21. There (not) appear to be + N..

- Dùng appear = seem to với ý nghĩa: dường như thế Ex: There didn’t appear to be anything in the museum (Dường như không có gì trong bảo tàng cả).

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1. S + V + too + adj/adv + (for someone) + to do something: (quá....để cho ai làm gì...)e.g. This structure is too easy for you to remember.e.g. He ran too fast for me to follow.

2. S + V + so + adj/ adv + that + S + V: (quá... đến nỗi mà...)e.g. This box is so heavy that I cannot take it.e.g. He speaks so soft that we can’t hear anything.

3. It + V + such + (a/an) + adj/ adv + N(s) + that + S + V: (quá... đến nỗi mà...)e.g. It is such a heavy box that I cannot take it.e.g. It is such interesting books that I cannot ignore them at all.

4. S + V + adj/ adv + enough + (for someone) + to do something : (Đủ... cho ai đó làm gì...)e.g. She is old enough to get married.e.g. They are intelligent enough for me to teach them English.

5. Have/ get + something + done (past participle): (nhờ ai hoặc thuê ai làm gì...)e.g. I had my hair cut yesterday.e.g. I’d like to have my shoes repaired.

6. It + be + time + S + V (-ed, cột 2) / It’s +time +for someone +to do something : (đã đến lúc ai đó phải làm gì...)e.g. It is time you had a shower.e.g. It’s time for me to ask all of you for this question.
Video giới thiệu về khoá học tiếng anh dành cho người mất căn bản:

7. It + takes/took+ someone + amount of time + to do something: (làm gì... mất bao nhiêu thời gian... hoc tieng anh) e.g. It takes me 5 minutes to get to school.e.g. It took him 10 minutes to do this exercise yesterday.

8. To prevent/stop + someone/something + From + V-ing: (ngăn cản ai/ cái gì... làm gì..)e.g. He prevented us from parking our car here.

9. S + find+ it+ adj to do something: (thấy ... để làm gì...)e.g. I find it very difficult to learn about English.e.g. They found it easy to overcome that problem.10. To prefer + Noun/ V-ing + to + N/ V-ing. (Thích cái gì/ làm gì hơn cái gì/ làm gì)e.g. I prefer dog to cat.e.g. I prefer reading books to watching TV.

11. Would rather ('d rather) + V (infinitive) + than + V (infinitive: (thích làm gì hơn làm gì) e.g. She would play games than read books.e.g. I’d rather learn English than learn Biology.

12. To be/get Used to + V-ing: (quen làm gì) e.g. I am used to eating with chopsticks.

13. Used to + V (infinitive): (Thường làm gì trong quá khứ và bây giờ không làm nữa)e.g. I used to go fishing with my friend when I was young.e.g. She used to smoke 10 cigarettes a day.

14. To be amazed at = to be surprised at + N/V-ing: ngạc nhiên về....e.g. I was amazed at his big beautiful villa.

15. To be angry at + N/V-ing: tức giận vềe.g. Her mother was very angry at her bad marks.

16. to be good at/ bad at + N/ V-ing: giỏi về.../ kém về...e.g. I am good at swimming.e.g. He is very bad at English.

17. by chance = by accident (adv): tình cờe.g. I met her in Paris by chance last week.

18. to be/get tired of + N/V-ing: mệt mỏi về...e.g. My mother was tired of doing too much housework everyday.

19. can’t stand/ help/ bear/ resist + V-ing: Không chịu nỗi/không nhịn được làm gì...e.g. She can't stand laughing at her little dog.

20. to be keen on/ to be fond of + N/V-ing : thích làm gì đó...e.g. My younger sister is fond of playing with her dolls.

21. to be interested in + N/V-ing: quan tâm đến...e.g. Mrs Brown is interested in going shopping on Sundays.

22. to waste + time/ money + V-ing: tốn tiền hoặc thời gian làm gìe.g. He always wastes time playing computer games each day.e.g. Sometimes, I waste a lot of money buying clothes.

23. To spend + amount of time/ money + V-ing: dành bao nhiêu thời gian làm gì..e.g. I spend 2 hours reading books a day.e.g. Mr Jim spent a lot of money traveling around the world last year.

24. To spend + amount of time/ money + on + something: dành thời gian vào việc gì...e.g. My mother often spends 2 hours on housework everyday.e.g. She spent all of her money on clothes.

25. to give up + V-ing/ N: từ bỏ làm gì/ cái gì...e.g. You should give up smoking as soon as possible.

26. would like/ want/wish + to do something: thích làm gì...e.g. I would like to go to the cinema with you tonight.

27. have + (something) to + Verb: có cái gì đó để làme.g. I have many things to do this week.

28. It + be + something/ someone + that/ who: chính...mà...
e.g. It is Tom who got the best marks in my class.e.g. It is the villa that he had to spend a lot of money last year.

29. Had better + V(infinitive): nên làm gì....e.g. You had better go to see the doctor.

30. hate/ like/ dislike/ enjoy/ avoid/ finish/ mind/ postpone/ practise/ consider/ delay/ deny/ suggest/ risk/ keep/ imagine/ fancy + V-ing
e.g. I always practise speaking English everyday.

31. It is + tính từ + ( for smb ) + to do smtVD: It is difficult for old people to learn English.( Người có tuổi học tiếng Anh thì khó )

32. To be interested in + N / V_ing ( Thích cái gì / làm cái gì )VD: We are interested in reading books on history.( Chúng tôi thích đọc sách về lịch sử )

33. To be bored with ( Chán làm cái gì )VD: We are bored with doing the same things everyday.( Chúng tôi chán ngày nào cũng làm những công việc lặp đi lặp lại)

34. It’s the first time smb have ( has ) + PII smt ( Đây là lần đầu tiên ai làm cái gì )VD: It’s the first time we have visited this place.( Đây là lần đầu tiên chúng tôi tới thăm nơi này )

35. enough + danh từ ( đủ cái gì ) + ( to do smt )VD: I don’t have enough time to study.( Tôi không có đủ thời gian để học )

36. Tính từ + enough (đủ làm sao ) + ( to do smt )VD: I’m not rich enough to buy a car.( Tôi không đủ giàu để mua ôtô )

37. too + tính từ + to do smt ( Quá làm sao để làm cái gì )VD: I’m to young to get married.( Tôi còn quá trẻ để kết hôn )

38. To want smb to do smt = To want to have smt + PII( Muốn ai làm gì ) ( Muốn có cái gì được làm )VD: She wants someone to make her a dress.( Cô ấy muốn ai đó may cho cô ấy một chiếc váy )= She wants to have a dress made.( Cô ấy muốn có một chiếc váy được may )

39. It’s time smb did smt ( Đã đến lúc ai phải làm gì )VD: It’s time we went home.( Đã đến lúc tôi phải về nhà )

40. It’s not necessary for smb to do smt = Smb don’t need to do smt( Ai không cần thiết phải làm gì ) doesn’t have to do smtVD: It is not necessary for you to do this exercise.( Bạn không cần phải làm bài tập này )

41. To look forward to V_ing ( Mong chờ, mong đợi làm gì )VD: We are looking forward to going on holiday.( Chúng tôi đang mong được đi nghỉ )

42. To provide smb from V_ing ( Cung cấp cho ai cái gì )VD: Can you provide us with some books in history?( Bạn có thể cung cấp cho chúng tôi một số sách về lịch sử không?)

43. To prevent smb from V_ing (Cản trở ai làm gì )To stopVD: The rain stopped us from going for a walk.( Cơn mưa đã ngăn cản chúng tôi đi dạo )

44. To fail to do smt (Không làm được cái gì / Thất bại trong việc làm cái gì)VD: We failed to do this exercise.(Chúng tôi không thể làm bài tập này )

45. To be succeed in V_ing (Thành công trong việc làm cái gì)VD: We were succeed in passing the exam.(Chúng tôi đã thi đỗ )

46. To borrow smt from smb (Mượn cái gì của ai)VD: She borrowed this book from the liblary.( Cô ấy đã mượn cuốn sách này ở thư viện )

47. To lend smb smt (Cho ai mượn cái gì)VD: Can you lend me some money?( Bạn có thể cho tôi vay ít tiền không? )

48. To make smb do smt (Bắt ai làm gì)VD: The teacher made us do a lot of homework.( Giáo viên bắt chúng tôi làm rất nhiều bài tập ở nhà )

49. CN + be + so + tính từ + that + S + động từ.( Đến mức mà )CN + động từ + so + trạng từ 1. The exercise is so difficult that noone can do it.( Bài tập khó đến mức không ai làm được )2. He spoke so quickly that I couldn’t understand him.( Anh ta nói nhanh đến mức mà tôi không thể hiểu được anh ta )

50. CN + be + such + ( tính từ ) + danh từ + that + CN + động từ.VD: It is such a difficult exercise that noone can do it.( Đó là một bài tập quá khó đến nỗi không ai có thể làm được )

51. It is ( very ) kind of smb to do smt ( Ai thật tốt bụng / tử tế khi làm gì) VD: It is very kind of you to help me.( Bạn thật tốt vì đã giúp tôi )

52. To find it + tính từ + to do smtVD: We find it difficult to learn English. ( Chúng tôi thấy học tiếng Anh khó )

53. To make sure of smt ( Bảo đảm điều gì )that + CN + động từVD: 1. I have to make sure of that information.( Tôi phải bảo đảm chắc chắn về thông tin đó )2. You have to make sure that you’ll pass the exam.( Bạn phải bảo đảm là bạn sẽ thi đỗ )

54. It takes ( smb ) + thời gian + to do smt ( Mất ( của ai ) bao nhiêu thời gian để làm gì)VD: It took me an hour to do this exercise.( Tôi mất một tiếng để làm bài này )

55. To spend + time / money + on smt ( Dành thời gian / tiền bạc vào cái gìdoing smt làm gì )VD: We spend a lot of time on TV.watching TV.( Chúng tôi dành nhiều thời gian xem TV )

56. To have no idea of smt = don’t know about smt ( Không biết về cái gì )VD: I have no idea of this word = I don’t know this word.( TÔI không biết từ này )

57. To advise smb to do smt ( Khuyên ai làm gìnot to do smt không làm gì )VD: Our teacher advises us to study hard.( Cô giáo khuyên chúng tôi học chăm chỉ )

58. To plan to do smt ( Dự định / có kế hoạch làm gì )intendVD: We planed to go for a picnic.intended( Chúng tôi dự định đi dã ngoại )

59. To invite smb to do smt ( Mời ai làm gì )VD: They invited me to go to the cinema.( Họ mời tôi đi xem phim )

60. To offer smb smt ( Mời / đề nghị ai cái gì )VD: He offered me a job in his company.( Anh ta mời tôi làm việc cho công ty anh ta )

61. To rely on smb ( tin cậy, dựa dẫm vào ai )VD: You can rely on him.( Bạn có thể tin anh ấy )

62. To keep promise ( Gĩư lời hứa )VD: He always keeps promises.

63. To be able to do smt = To be capable of + V_ing ( Có khả năng làm gì )VD: I’m able to speak English = I am capable of speaking English.( Tôi có thể nói tiếng Anh )

64. To be good at ( + V_ing ) smt ( Giỏi ( làm ) cái gì )VD: I’m good at ( playing ) tennis.( Tôi chơi quần vợt giỏi )

65. To prefer smt to smt ( Thích cái gì hơn cái gì )doing smt to doing smt làm gì hơn làm gìVD: We prefer spending money than earning money.( Chúng tôi thích tiêu tiền hơn kiếm tiền )

66. To apologize for doing smt ( Xin lỗi ai vì đã làm gì )VD: I want to apologize for being rude to you. ( Tôi muốn xin lỗi vì đã bất lịch sự với bạn )

67. Had ( ‘d ) better do smt ( Nên làm gì )not do smt ( Không nên làm gì )VD: 1. You’d better learn hard.( Bạn nên học chăm chỉ )2. You’d better not go out.( Bạn không nên đi ra ngoài ) - Danh sách các trung tâm tiếng anh uy tín

68. Would ( ‘d ) rather do smt Thà làm gìnot do smt đừng làm gìVD: I’d rather stay at home.I’d rather not say at home.

69. Would ( ‘d ) rather smb did smt ( Muốn ai làm gì )VD: I’d rather you ( he / she ) stayed at home today.( Tôi muốn bạn / anh ấy / cô ấy ở nhà tối nay )

70. To suggest smb ( should ) do smt ( Gợi ý ai làm gì )VD: I suggested she ( should ) buy this house.

71. To suggest doing smt ( Gợi ý làm gì )VD: I suggested going for a walk.

72. Try to do ( Cố làm gì )VD: We tried to learn hard.( Chúng tôi đã cố học chăm chỉ )

73. Try doing smt ( Thử làm gì )VD: We tried cooking this food.( Chúng tôi đã thử nấu món ăn này )

74. To need to do smt ( Cần làm gì )VD: You need to work harder.( Bạn cần làm việc tích cực hơn )

75. To need doing ( Cần được làm )VD: This car needs repairing.( Chiếc ôtô này cần được sửa )

76. To remember doing ( Nhớ đã làm gì )VD: I remember seeing this film.( Tôi nhớ là đã xem bộ phim này )

77. To remember to do ( Nhớ làm gì ) ( chưa làm cái này )VD: Remember to do your homework.( Hãy nhớ làm bài tập về nhà )

78. To have smt + PII ( Có cái gì được làm )VD: I’m going to have my house repainted.( Tôi sẽ sơn lại nhà người khác sơn, không phải mình sơn lấy )=To have smb do smt ( Thuê ai làm gì )VD: I’m going to have the garage repair my car.= I’m going to have my car repaired.

79. To be busy doing smt ( Bận rộn làm gì )VD: We are busy preparing for our exam.( Chúng tôi đang bận rộn chuẩn bị cho kỳ thi )

80. To mind doing smt ( Phiền làm gì )VD: Do / Would you mind closing the door for me?( Bạn có thể đóng cửa giúp tôi không? )

81. To be used to doing smt ( Quen với việc làm gì )VD: We are used to getting up early.( Chúng tôi đã quen dậy sớm )

82. To stop to do smt ( Dừng lại để làm gì )VD: We stopped to buy some petrol.( Chúng tôi đã dừng lại để mua xăng )

83. To stop doing smt ( Thôi không làm gì nữa )VD: We stopped going out late.( Chúng tôi thôi không đi chơi khuya nữa )

84. Let smb do smt ( Để ai làm gì )VD: Let him come in.( Để anh ta vào )

Theo infonet

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 Tất tần tật những nguyên tắc với "s,es":

CÁCH THÊM “-S/-ES” VÀO ĐỘNG TỪ HOẶC DANH TỪ
1.
- Hầu hết các danh từ số nhiều đều được thành lập bằng cách thêm –s vào danh từ số ít.
Ex: boy ( boys, house ( houses, dog ( dogs, etc.

2.

- Các danh từ tận cùng bằng s, sh, ch, x, z được tạo thành số nhiều bằng cách thêm –es
Ex: dish ( dishes, church ( churches, box ( boxes, bus ( buses, quiz ( quizes, etc.

3. Riêng đối với các danh từ có tận cùng bằng –y thì ta chia ra làm hai trường hợp:
- Nếu trước –y là một phụ âm, ta bỏ -y thêm –ies vào danh từ: baby ( babies, country ( countries, etc.
- Nếu trước –y là một nguyên âm, ta chỉ thêm –s vào danh từ: boy ( boys, day ( days, etc.

4.
- Một số danh từ tận cùng bằng –f hoặc –fe như calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, thief, wife, wolf được tạo thành số nhiều bằng cách bỏ đi –f hoặc –fe rồi thêm vào –ves.
Ex: knife ( knives, wolf ( wolves, etc.
- Các danh từ tận cùng bằng –f hoặc –fe còn lại thì ta thêm –s vào cuối danh từ để tạo thành hình thức số nhiều cho danh từ đó.
Ex: roof ( roofs, belief ( beliefs, cliffs, etc.

5.
- Một số danh từ tận cùng bằng một phụ âm + o được tạo thành hình thức số nhiều bằng cách thêm –es.
Eg: tomato ( tomatoes, potato ( potatoes, hero ( heroes, echo ( echoes
- Các danh từ tận cùng bằng một nguyên âm + o, các từ vay mượn của nước ngoài hoặc các từ được viết tắt thì chỉ cần thêm –s để tạo thành hình thức số nhiều.
Eg: zoo ( zoos, radio ( radios, photo ( photos, piano ( pianos

6. Một số trường hợp danh từ bất quy tắc thông dụng:
Singular form Plural form
A man men
A woman women
A tooth teeth
A foot feet
A child children
A mouse mice
An ox oxen
A sheep sheep
An aircraft aircraft
A deer deer
A fish fish
1. The pronunciation of the ending “s/es” (cách đọc âm cuối “s/es”)

Phụ âm cuối “s” thường xuất hiện trong các danh từ dạng số nhiều và động từ chia ở thì hiện tại đơn với chủ nghữ là ngôi thứ 3 số ít.

Có 3 cách phát âm phụ âm cuối “s” như sau:

- /s/:Khi từ có tận cùng là các phụ âm vô thanh /t/, /p/, /f/, /k/, /ð/

E.g.

Units / 'ju:nits/

Stops / stɒps/

Topics / 'tɒpiks

Laughs / lɑ:fs/

Breathes / bri:ðs/

- /iz/:Khi từ có tận cùng là các âm /s/, /z/, /∫/, /t∫/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/ (thường có tận cùng là các chữ cái ce, x, z, sh, ch, s, ge)

E.g.

Classes / klɑ:siz/

washes /wɒ∫iz/

Watches / wɒt∫iz/

Changes /t∫eindʒiz/

- /z/:Khi từ có tận cùng là nguyên âm và các phụ âm hữu thanh còn lại

E.g.

Plays / pleiz/

Bags / bægz/

speeds / spi:dz/

2. The pronunciation of –ed endings (cách đọc âm cuối –ed)

Đuôi –ed xuất hiện trong động từ có quy tắc chia ở quá khứ hoặc quá khứ phân từ.

Cách phát âm đuôi –ed như sau:

- /id/ hoặc /əd/:Khi động từ có tận cùng là phụ âm /t/ hoặc /d/

E.g

Wanted / wɒntid /

Needed / ni:did /

- /t/:Khi động từ tận cùng bằng phụ âm vô thanh /p/, /f/, /k/, /s/, /∫/, /ʧ/

E.g

Stoped / stɒpt /

Laughed / lɑ:ft /

Cooked / kʊkt /

Sentenced / entənst /

Washed / wɒ∫t /

Watched / wɒt∫t /

-/d/:Khi động từ tận cùng là các nguyên âm và các phụ âm còn lại

Played / pleid /

Opened / əʊpənd /

-Một số trường hợp ngoại lệ: Một số từ kết thúc bằng –ed được dùng làm tính từ, đuôi –ed được phát âm là /id/:

Aged:/ eidʒid / (Cao tuổi. lớn tuổi)

Blessed:/ blesid / (Thần thánh, thiêng liêng)

Crooked:/ krʊkid / (Cong, oằn, vặn vẹo)

Dogged:/ dɒgid / (Gan góc, gan lì, bền bỉ)

Naked:/ neikid / (Trơ trụi, trần truồng)

Learned:/ lɜ:nid / (Có học thức, thông thái, uyên bác)

Ragged:/ rægid / (Rách tả tơi, bù xù)

Wicked:/ wikid / (Tinh quái, ranh mãnh, nguy hại)

Wretched:/ ret∫id / (Khốn khổ, bần cùng, tồi tệ)
. Danh từ số ít kết thúc bằng “f” hoặc “fe”
Với những danh từ kết thúc bằng “f/ fe”, khi chuyển sang danh từ số nhiều, ta bỏ f/fe và thêm ves. Tuy nhiên có một số trường hợp vẫn giữ nguyên f/fe sau đó thêm s, một số trường hợp thì chấp nhận cả hai cách.
Ví dụ:

· Bỏ f/fe, thêm ves: a knife – knives, one half – two halves, my life – their lives, a wolf – wolves.
· Giữ nguyên, thêm s: one roof – roofs, a cliff – many cliffs, a safe – safes
· Có thể giữ nguyên, cũng có thể bỏ f/fe thêm s: a dwarf – the seven dwarfs/ dwarves, one wharf – a few wharfs/ wharves
2. Những danh từ số nhiều đặc biệt
Những danh từ số nhiều đặc biệt xuất xứ từ tiếng Anh cổ. Bạn hãy học thuộc những từ này bởi chúng được sử dụng rất phổ biến.

· a man – men
· a woman – women
· a person -- people
· a foot – feet
· a goose – geese
· a tooth – teeth
· a child – children
· an ox – oxen (castrated bulls)
· a brother – brethren (in church orders), brothers (in a family)
· a mouse – mice
· a louse – lice
· a die – dice (for playing games)
3. Một cách viết cho danh từ số nhiều và số ít
Có rất nhiều danh từ có dạng số nhiều và số ít giống nhau như:

· a sheep – sheep, a deer – deer, a moose – moose
· a fish – fish (fishes: dùng khi chỉ các loài cá khác nhau )
· a dozen – two dozen roses, a hundred – several hundred men (nhưng có thể nói: dozens of roses, hundreds of people)
4. Danh từ luôn ở dạng số nhiều
Một số danh từ luôn ở dạng số nhiều, cho dù có kết thúc bằng “s” hay không.

· The police are looking for the robbers.
· I like these pants / jeans / shorts.
· Use either scissors or nail clippers.
· Binoculars are stronger than any glasses.
Một số danh từ khác, kết thúc bằng “s” lại mang một nghĩa khác Other nouns ending with s only have a plural form only with certain meanings.

· customs (hải quan)
· guts (sự can đảm)
· quarters (phòng ở)
· clothes (quần áo)
· goods (hàng hóa)
· arms (vũ khí)
5. Danh từ số ít kết thúc bằng “s”
• Một số danh từ kết thúc bằng “s” nhưng lại thường là dạng số ít.
Các loại bệnh tật: measles, rabies.
Các lĩnh vực nghiên cứu: economics, ethics, linguistics, politics, physics, gymnastics.
Các trò chơi: dominoes, darts, cards
Ví dụ: I study mathematics, which is very difficult. Dominoes is my favorite pastime.
• Một số danh từ có dạng số ít và số nhiều giống nhau, đều kết thúc bằng chữ s: Barracks, means, headquarters, crossroads
Ví dụ:
a TV series – many TV series,
Money is a means to an end.
Newspapers and TV are means of mass-communication.
There is one species of humans but many species of cats.
6. Danh từ kết thúc bằng “o”
Với những từ kết thúc bằng “o”, khi chuyển sang danh từ số nhiều ta thêm "s" hoặc "es." Nếu là một nguyên âm đứng trước “o” thì chỉ cần thêm “s”, như:

· Radio-radios, video-videos
Nếu trước “o” là một phụ âm thì không có quy tắc nhất quán:

· Potato-potatoes, hero-heroes
Nhưng ...

· Photo-photos, memo-memos
Những từ kết thúc bằng “y” thường chuyển “y” thành “i” rồi mới thêm “es”

· Cry-cries, fly-flies, party-parties

7. Dấu móc lửng - ’ .
Người ta sử dụng dấu móc lửng với những lý do nhất định. Trong trường hợp biến các danh từ dạng chữ cái từ số ít sang số nhiều thì phải sử dụng dấu móc lửng, như:

· He played for the Oakland A’s.
· I got B's and C's on my report card.
Dấu móc lửng cũng được dùng khi chuyển các danh từ dạng viết tắt, hoặc từ cấu tạo bằng các nhóm từ. Bởi nếu không dùng dấu móc lửng sẽ rất dễ gây nhầm lẫn.
GA, BU hay SS khi chuyển sang số nhiều cần dùng dấu ’ , vì nếu không trông chúng giống như những từ bình thường, hoặc gây khó hiểu như Gas, Bus và SSs.
Tuy nhiên, với những từ không gây nhầm lẫn thì không cần thiết dùng dấu móc lửng.
DVDs, CDs, PhDs

8. Danh từ số nhiều mượn từ ngôn ngữ khác
Cũng như những ngôn ngữ khác, trong suốt quá trình tồn tại và phát triển, tiếng Anh cũng vay mượn khá nhiều từ từ các ngôn ngữ khác. Một số mượn từ tiếng Latinh, Hy Lạp cổ, được Anh hóa và có dạng số nhiều kết thúc bằng chữ “s”. Số khác thì có cả hai dạng. Từ gốc được dùng trong ngôn ngữ trang trọng, bởi các chuyên gia, còn những từ được Anh hóa thì được dùng phổ biến hơn. Trong số này, hầu hết được biết đến và sử dụng ở dạng số nhiều nhưng thường lại được coi là dạng số ít và chia động từ ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít nếu ở thì hiện tại đơn.

um – ia
One bacterium can multiply into millions - Bacteria multiply rapidly
one datum - Use this data for your calculations
The Internet is the newest medium. - the media is everywhere
Each school should have a curriculum.- curricula
on – a
one criterion- several criteria
a natural phenomenon - natural phenomena
is – es
psychological analysis - financial analyses
the oil crisis - many life crises
the basis for the hypothesis - the bases of the hypotheses
a – ae
the TV antenna- TV antennas,insect antennae
sea alga - sea algae
us - i
a circle’s radius - the circles’ radii
a fungus - fungi
an alumnus - alumni
ex/ix – ices
an index - indices, indexes
The matrix - matrices
appendix - appendices, appendixes
o – i
graffito - graffiti
concerto - concerti
virtuoso – virtuosi
Ở thể khẳng định của thì hiện tại đơn, "động từ thường" được chia bằng cách:
-Giữ nguyên hình thức nguyên mẫu của động từ (Vo) khi chủ ngữ là "I / We / You / They và các chủ ngữ số nhiều khác"
-Thêm "s" hoặc "es" sau động từ (Vs/es) khi chủ ngữ là "He / She / It và các chủ ngữ số ít khác"

+Phần lớn các trường hợp thì động từ khi chia với chủ ngữ số ít đều được thêm "s", ngoại trừ những từ tận cùng bằng "x, ch, z, s, sh" thì ta thêm "es" vào sau động từ. Để dễ nhớ các chữ cái trên ta tạm đọc thành "Xin Chớ Zội Sổ SHàng"
Ex: (Động từ: Wash) He washes
+Khi động từ tận cùng là "y" thì đổi "y" thành "I" và thêm "es" vào sau động từ
Ex: (Động từ: Study) She studies
+ Nếu trước "y" là phụ âm ta thay "y" bằng "i" và thêm "es"
Ex: Study ---> Studies
+ Nếu trước "y" là nguyên âm thì ta giữ nguyên và thêm "s" như bình thường.
Ex: Play ---> Plays

Thì hiện tại đơn giản(Present Simple Tense)
1. Công thức (Form)
S+ V(s/es)/ be
Ex : want-- wants ; give--- gives ; be--- am; is ; are
* Các động từ kết thúc bởi đuôi: -sh;-ch;-o;-ss;-x được thêm "es" khi chia với ngôi thứ 3 số ít (ví dụ: wash -- washes; watch -- watches...)
* Các động từ kết thúc bởi đuôi: -y, chúng ta chuyển thành "i" rồi thêm " es" ( ví dụ: study -- studies ...)
2/ Các trạng từ chỉ tần suất:
* Never; seldom; rarely; sometimes; often; usually; always; normally; ocassionally...
* From time to time; constantly; now and then; frequently; every (...); once; twice; three times a day ...
3/ Các sử dụng (Uses):
a/ Miêu tả các sự việc luôn luôn đúng:
Ex: Hai Duong is not as big as Hanoi
b/ Các thói quen lặp đi lặp lại ở hiện tại :
Ex: I often go to school at 7 a.m.
c/ Thời khóa biểu / Lịch trình:
Ex: The film starts at 8 pm.
d/ Miêu tả trạng thái: Likes, interests, belief, hopes…:
* Love, like, hate, dislike, enjoy, prefer, detest, fancy....
* Thinks, wonder, consider, suppose, doubt....
* Want, need, wish, hope, believe, expect, know, understand,....
e/ Các động từ chỉ trực giác: Hear, see, smell, look, notice, seem, sound...
f/ Các động từ xác định, bao gồm:
Contain, consist, feel, last, depend, matter, belong, fit, suit, weigh, own, mean, seem, appear...
g/ Plot of a film, play, book ...:
Ex: The films tells about a naughty boy who is hated by step mother .

Source : English Sharing Experiences

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In educating students for adult work and adult life, American schools try, above all, to be practical. American education has been greatly influenced by the writings of a famous 20th century philosopher named John Dewey. Dewey believed that the only worthwhile knowledge was knowledge that could be used. He convinced educators that it was pointless to make students memorize useless facts that they would quickly forget. Rather, schools should teach thinking process and skills that affect how people live and work.

 
Dewey also influenced teaching techniques. Education must be meaningful, and children learn best by doing -these are the basic ideas of progressive education. Thus, science is taught largely through student experimentation; the study of music involves making music; democratic principles are put into practice in the student council; group projects encourage creativity, individual initiative, leadership, and teamwork.
  What do American schools see as their educationl responsibility to students? The scope is very broad indeed. Today's schools teach skills and information once left for the parents to teach at home. For example, it is common for the public school curriculum to include a campaign against cigarette smoking and drug abuse, a course in driver's education, cooking and sewing classes, consumer education, and sex education. Most American grammar schools have also added computer skills to their curriculum. As human knowledge has expanded and life has become increasingly complex, the schools have had to go far beyond the original three Rs ("reading, writing, and "rithmetic') that they were created to teach.
  American high schools have a dual commitment (a) to offer a general college preparatory program for those are interested in higher education; and b) to provide opportunities for vocational training for students who plan to enter the work force immediately after high school graduation. For the college-bound, high schools offer advanced classes in math, sciences, social sciences, English, and foreign languages. They also have Advanced Placement (AP) courses, which enable good students to earn college credit while still in high school. But in the same building, other students take vocational courses such as shorthand and mechanical drawing, and some participate in work/ study programs which enable them to get high school credit for on-the-job training in various occupations.
  Today, more than ever before, American schools are committed to helping foreign-born students adjust to life in an American classroom. The Bilingual Education Act of 1986 provided federal funds for bilingual instruction, which allows students to study academic subjects totally or partially in their native language while they are learning English. Bilingual education is offered in about 70 languages including Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese, and several American Indian languages. Of course, this type of instruction is available only where a number of students speak the same foreign language. In addition, immigrant students have benefited from the 1974 Supreme Court ruling requiring public schools to provide special programs for students who speak little or no English. Today, English as a second language instruction is common in American elementary and high schools.

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Amencan colleges and universities vary a great deal in size. Some colleges have student bodies of just a few hundred, while some state university serve more than 100,000 students on several different campuses. At smaller schools, students generally get to know their classmates and professors better and are less likely to feel lonely and confused. Larger schools offer a greater selection of courses and more activities to attend and participate in. When selecting a college, the student must consider which type of environment best suits his or her needs.

  There are two main categories of institutions of higher learning: public and private. All schools get money from tuition and from private contributors. However, public schools are supported primarily by the state funding. As a result, tuition is generally lower at public schools, especially for permanent residents of that state.
  Schools can also be grouped by the types of programs and degrees they offer. The three major groups are community colleges, four-year colleges, and universities. Community colleges offer only the first two years of undergraduate studies (the freshman and sophomore years). The number of these schools has grown very rapidly in the past 40 years. In 1950, there were about 600 in the U.S.A. Today, there are about 1,300, and they serve about five million students (about 55% of all college freshmen). Most community colleges are public schools, supported by local and/ or state funds. They serve two general types of students (a) those taking the first two years of college before transfering to a four-year school for their third and fourth (junior and senior) years; and (b) those enrolled in one-or-two-year job training programs. Community colleges offer technical training in many areas of study, such as health services, office skills, computer science, drafting, police work, and automotive repair.
  Newcomers to the U.S.A often ask, "Exactly what is the difference between a college and a university?" Some assume that the difference is merely one of size, but it is more than that. A university is bigger than a college because of scope of its programs is much greater. A university offers a wider range of undergraduage programs and also offers graduate studies. Part of the responsibility of a university is to encourage its faculty and its graduate students to do research that will advance human knowledge. Colleges, on the other hand, are primarily undergraduate schools with no commitment to train students for research.
  Many excellent colleges are "liberal arts" schools, which means that they offer studies in the humanities, languages, mathematics, social sciences, and sciences. Liberal arts colleges generally do not offer degrees in engineering, business, journalism, education, and many other specific vocations that a student can train for at a university. However, students at a liberal arts college (like college students elsewhere) still major in a specific area of knowledge.
  Some colleges specialize in training students for one particular occupation (as agricultural colleges and teachers's colleges do). Many provide higher education in one specific occupation - for example, conservatories for music students, seminaries for students of religion, and fine arts schools for artists. For those wishing to prepare for military careers, the United States government maintains four special academies.
  At the college level, the academic year is about nine months long (usually from September until early June or from late August until May). After completing four academic years with acceptable grades in an approved course of study, the student earns a bachelor's degree. Some students complete colleges in less than four years by attending summer sessions. At most college, the academic year is divided into either two or three terms, excluding the summer session. Colleges grade, from highest to lowest, run A, B, C, D and F. F is a failing grade; if a student receives an F in a particular course, he or she does not get credit for having taken the course. College students must maintain at least a low C average in order to remain in school.

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Americans believe that every citizen has both the right and obligation to become educated. The citizens of a democracy need to be educated so that they can take part in affairs of government, both local and national. They must also learn vocational skills.

  In order to develop an educated population, all states have compulsory school attendance laws. These laws vary somewhat from one state to another, but generally they require that formal schooling begin by age 6 and continue until at least 16. However, most Americans attend school at least until high school graduation, when they are 17 or 18 years old. About 75% of all American adults and about 85% of younger American adults are high school graduates.
  The size of the nation's basic educational enterprise is astonishing. From kindergarten through high school, about 46 million students are enrolled in school. To educate this vast number of students, Americans employ about 2.7 million teachers, by far the largest professional group in the country.

 Public And Private Schools

  About 88% of American children receive their elementary and high school education in the nation's public shools. These schools have the following important characteristics in common:
  a) They are supported by taxes and, therefore, do not charge tuition.
  b) In general, they are neighborhood schools, open to all students who live within the district.
  c) They are co-educational, which means that boys and girls attend the same schools and have nearly all of their classes together. By providing girls with equal educational opportunity, American public schools have helped to create today's sellsufficient American woman.
  d) Public schools are required to follow some state guidelines regarding, for example, curriculum and teacher qualifications. But, in most matters, schools are locally controlled. Each school district is run by an elected Board of Education and the school administrators that Board hires. This system creates strong ties between the district's schools and its community.
  e) Public schools are nonsectarian (secular), which means that they are free from the influence of any religion. As a result, children of many different religions feel comfortable attending the public schools, and the public school system has been able to help a diverse population build a common culture.
  Private school can be divided into two categories: parochial (supported by a particular religious group) and secular (nonreligious). Private schools charge tuition and are not under direct public control, although many states set educational standards for them. In order to attend a private school, a student must apply and be accepted. Parochial schools make up the largest group of private schools, and most of these are operated by the Roman Catholic Church. Private secular schools are mainly high schools and colleges.

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  Three square meals a day-that's what Americans are supposed to eat. But, in reality, most add between-means snacks and have a bite five or six times a day. Is is healthy? Americans believe that what they eat is more important than how often. However, the quality and the quantity of American consumption are both matters of concern.

  AMERICAN MEALS AND SNACKS
  The meal that breaks overnight fast is, of course, breakfast. It is a meal that about 25% of American skip, either because they're in a hurry or on a diet. Many adults that do eat breakfast have only a small meal, perhaps just orange juice or toast along with the traditional wake-up beverage, coffee. But others eat a real meal in the morning. A complete American breakfast begins with fruit or fruit juice. The main course is generally hot or cold cereal or eggs. The eggs are usually served with toast and perhaps also bacon, ham, or sausages. Other popular breakfast foods are pancakes, waffles, and French toast (bread soaked in a mixture of eggs and milk and then fried), all served with maple syrup.
  Americans usually eat breakfast between 7 and 8 A.M. By 10:30 or thereabouts, they're ready for their mid-morning coffee break. Most workers are given 10 to 15 minutes off the job to have coffee, a snack, and a chat with coworkers.
  Most Americans eat lunch between noon and two o'clock. This mid-day meal is eaten away from home more often then breakfast or dinner. It is rare for working adults to go home for lunch, and many schoolchildren also eat at school. Some people brown-bag it-that is, they bring food from home in a paper bag. For this purpose, they need a meal that is small and portable. The sandwich meets these requirements. In addition, it is inexpensive and easy to prepare. The sandwich chef needs only two pieces of bread, something moist to smear on the bread (butter, maonnaise, mustard, or catsup), and some meat, cheese, fish, or poultry to stuff in between. Some popular cold sandwich are those made with ham and cheese, peanut butter and jelly, sliced chicken or turkey, tuna salad, and roast beef.
  People who eat lunch in restaurants are more likely to order hot sandwiches. The most popular of these are hamburgers and hot dogs. Hamburgers are patties of chopped meat, usually served in round buns. Hot dogs are 5 to 7-inch sausages (also called red hots, frankfurters, or wieners) served in long, thin buns. The name hot dog was inspired (about 1900) by an American vendor who compared the frankfurter to the long-bodied German dig. His hot dachshund sausages eventually became simply hot dogs.
  The sanwich is standard lunchtime fare, but for a bigger meal, the diner might add a bowl of soup, a salad, French tried potatoes or potato chips, and a sweet dessert or fruit.
  Because most people eat lunch around the same time, restaurants are quite crowded between noon and two o'clock. At counters, where customers sit on a row of stools rather than at separate tables, waiters and waitresses can provide faster service. To save time, many people eat in cafeterias, where customers walk by displays of food, place what they want on their trays, and then pay a cashier at the end of the line. Self-service cafeterias handle big crowds quickly and efficiently. Large institutions such as factories, hospitals, and schools often have cafeterias and/ or lunchrooms with food dispensing machines from which customers can purchase soup, sandwiches, drinks, fruit, and sweets. Microwave ovens for heating foods quickly may set up near these machines. Fast-food reataurants (where customers order food and get it in about two minutes) also do a thriving business at lunchtime.
  On the other hand, those who want a more leisurely lunch served to them can find many traditional restaurants. At nice restaurants, diners sometimes combine business and pleasure at a business luncheon, where work is discussed while eating.
  The mid-afternoon snack is also an American tradition. Office and factory workers take a second coffee break. Children coming home from school usually head immediately for the refrigerator. In warm weather, ice cream is a popular snack food. It's consumed in cones, bars, and sundaes (with a sweet sauce on top). It is also used in two popular drinks, milkshakes and ice cream sodas.
  The biggest meal of the day is dinner, served about six o'clock. Dinner may include several courses: an appetizer (consisting of fresh fruit, fruit juice, or a small portion of fish); soup; salad; an entr3e of meat, poultry, or fish; and side dishes such as cooked vegetables, rice, or noodles. Coffee or tea and dessert finish off the meal. Most American prefer a sweet dessert such as cake, pie, or ice cream. Apple pie, served hot with a scoop of ice cream (# la mode) or with a slice of cheese, is a national favorite, hence the popular expression, "as American as apple pie". Most Americans don't eat all these courses for dinner every evening, but they often do so when eating out or serving guests at home.
  With lunch and dinner, Americans commonly drink water, fruit juice, beer, coffee, tea, or a carbonated drink called soda or pop. Though children are urged to drink milk with every meal, many prefer soda or juice instead. Wine is considered festive and is likely to appear on holidays, at celebrations, and when dining out.
  Since dinner is customarily served early in the evening, the late evening snack is a ritual in most households. Children often have milk and cookies before bedtime. Adults may nibble on fruit or sweets.
  On weekends and holidays, the meal schedule may vary. On Saturday evenings, many people eat every late dinners, particularly who dine out. On Sundays, many families have brunch, a meal that combines breakfast and lunch. It is usually served between 11 A.M. and 2 P.M. and includes typical breakfast foods plus cheese, fruit, cake and perhaps cold fish. Families who go to church on Sunday morning may have their usual weekday breakfast before services and then eat their biggest meal of the day about two o'clock. The main meal of the day is always called dinner, no matter what time it is served. When dinner is eaten in mid-afternoon, a smaller evening meal, called supper, is served around seven o'clock.
  On Sundays and holidays when the weather is mild, Americans often eat outdoors. They enjoy picnics in parks, backyard barbecues (usually featuring charcoal-broiled steaks, hot dogs, or hamburgers) and clambakes.
  In the U.S.A. as elsewhere, eating is an importatnt part of family life and social activity. In many homes, dinner time may be the only time when everyone gets together and shares the day's experiences. It is also on occastion for inviting friends.
  Dinning out is also an important part of American social life. For single men and women, dates often begin with dinner at a nice restaurant. Married couples often get together in groups to eat out, especially on weekends. In their desire to use time efficiently, American may rush through breakfast and lunch, but dinnner is usually a more leisurely meal at which enjoyment of food is enhanced by pleasant conversation.

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By 1870, black Americans had been declared citizens with all the rights guaranteed to every citizens. But they were members of a conspicuous minority within a white society. Furthermore, most were uneducated, unskilled, and unprepared to provide for their own basic needs. With freedom, Negroes found many new problems-legal, social, and economic.
  After the Civil War, Negroes began migrating to the big cities in the North, and this trend continued into the 20th century. In the North, blacks found greater freedom, but conditions were still difficult and opportunities limited. Discrimination in the sale and rental of housing forced blacks into poor, crowded, mostly black communities often referred to as ghettos. In general, facilities for living and learning were grossly inadequate in these communities.
  Blacks who remained in the South endured conditions even more difficult and degrading. Southern blacks were forced to obey state laws (called "Jim Crow laws") which kept them segregated from white people. The races went to different schools, drank from different fountains, used different washrooms, ate in different restaurants, and were buried in different cemeteries. On buses, blacks were required to sit in the back. For Southern blacks, there was no such thing as justice in the courts of law. Once accused of a crime, blacks were almost certain to be found guilty by all-white juries.
  Southern whites, who wished to keep the power of the vote from the large black population of the South, used the thread of violence to discourage blacks from registering to vote. When a black person did try to register, devices such as a poll tax (a tax on the right to vote) or a literacy test (unfairly administered) were used to deny this right.

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  A company that has developed a successful business may decide to license other companies to operate silimar busineses unde the same name. That license is called a franchise. The original company is known as the franchisor, and the licensed companies are franchisees. Each franchisee pays the franchisor for the right to use the franchise name and ideas. The franchisor assists its franchisees in selecting a site for the business, purchasing equipment, learning how to run the business and so on. Advertising is done on a national basis in the name of the franchise. The franchisor controls the products that its franchisees sell so that the consumers can be assured that their McDonald's hamburger will taste the same whether they buy it in Atlanta, Georgia or Atlantic City, New Jersey.
  There are more than 500,000 franchises operating with sales of more than $600 billion annually. That is more than one-third of all retail sales in the United States. Although the most well-known franchises are fast-food businesses, franchises also include almost every category of business, such as real estate brokers, automotive parts, and employment agencies.
  Why do people buy franchises? Buying a franchise is the least risky way to go into business for oneself. The franchise's national reputation, advertising, training program, and business experience give the franchisee a big advantage over independent enterprises. As a result, the failure rate of franchised businesses in only 4%, while most nonfranchised businesses fail within their first five years. These statistics encourage many people with no prior experience in business to invest in a franchise, which will guide them toward success.
  American capitalism, with all its problems, has proved to be one of the most productive economic systems in history. In a capitalistic system, people try to produce better goods and services because there are financial rewards for doing so. In addition, the freedom of choice that capitalism provides appeals to the independent American character. With few exceptions, no outside power tells any enterpreneur how much to charge for goods or services, and people are free to decide how they will earn and spend their income. The American economy is based upon the belief that every individual knows what is the best for himself or herself and must take responsibility for his of her decisions. Risks exists, but so do opportunities for advancement. Most Americans gladly accept both.

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The great American novelist and humorist Mark Twain pointed out the difference between the more conservative European and the more experimental American temperament. He described the Englishman as "a person who does things because they have been done before" and the American as "a person who does things because they haven't been done before" Americans love to try something new mostly because of a belief that newer may he better.

  As a nation of immigrants the United States has had a continual influx of people with a pioneering spirit with the courage to make major changes. In the mid 19th century, this sprit led American settlers to make the long, difficult, and dangerous journey westward in search of god or free land. The desire to start new life in a new place is still noticeable throughout the nation. About 40 million Americans change residences every year. The average American moves about 14 times in his or her lifetime. Most of these moves are local ones, occuring when families get bigger or smaller, richer or poorer. Some moves are due to job changes. Others are the results of a spirit of adventure or the desire for a change of climate. Moving away is less lonely today because it's so easy to travel or phone a few thousand miles to keep in touch with relatives and old friends. Out of sight is no longer out of mind.
  The pioneering spirit of Americans is evident in many other aspects of their lives. Mid-life career changes are quite common and reflect American adaptability as job opportunities change. Americans of all ages are quite willing to return to school to learn something new if that will lead to a better job. Americans also change marriage partners more often than most other people in the world.
  Americans love science and technology because these fields of study bring the excitement of new discoveries. The United States has embraced the new age of communication with great enthusiasm. From preschoolers to senior citizens, Americans are learning to use computers-at school, at work, and at home. Robots, lasers, and other creations of modern technology fascinate them. Americans subsidize all kinds of space exploration, ranging from outside the earth to inside the atom, in forward with great excitement to the beginning of a new century and the scientific wonders it will bring.
  This love of change is closely tied to faith in improvement. Americans have always been optimistic people, believing in the perfectibility of people, the basic goodness of their country, and the ability of American ingenuity to improve the quality of human life. But in the past 30 years, people have come to realize that if life can become better, it can also become worse. The dangers of air and water pollution, nuclear power, and overpopulation have become clear. Americans now realize that it is not only possible for living conditions to deteriorate: it is even possible for the inventions of modern science and industry to destroy life on earth totally.

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The chief influence of the American Negro culture-nationally and internationally-has been in the field of music. The familiar Negro spirituals, the unusual rythms and harmonies of jazz, the haunting blues melodies -all these originated with the Negro slaves. It is often said that what is best and most original in American popular music comes from the Negro idiom.

  Many blacks have become famous entertainers of athletes. Eddie Murphy and Bill Cosby are just two of several famous black comedians. Two superstars-singer Michael Jackson and basketball player Michael Jordan-have become national idols of the young. In intellectual fields as well, blacks have made great contributions. Many are highly respected professional people-teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges, and ministers. One of the most interesting of black American scholars was George Washington Carver, the famous botanist. Carver began his life as a slave. Later, he revolutionized the agriculture of the South. Carver also developed more than 300 products from the peanut (including soap and ink) and 118 products from the sweet potato (including flour, shoe polish, and candy). Among the many oustanding black American authors of the past and present are poets Gwendolyn Brooks and Maya Angelou and novelists James Baldwin, Ralph Ellison, Richard Wright, Toni Morrison, and Alice Walker. Thurgood Marshall has been serving on the Supreme Court in 1967.
  Given an equal opportunity to learn and work, black American will contribute even more to this country. In order to make full use of its human resources, the United States must make sure that its customs and institutions extend equal privileges to all Americans.

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  Today's black Americans are descendants of  African Negroes who were brought to the United States by force and sold into slavery. After slavery was abolished, segregation in the South and discrimination in the North kept blacks second-class citizens for almost another century. Conditions have greatly improved for black Americans during the past 30 years. Among this nation's 30 million blacks are many sucessful, important, and famous people. However, as a group, blacks remain a disadvantaged minority. Their struggle for equal opportunity has been won in the courts of law, but they are still struggling for the respect and prosperity that most other American enjoy.

  SLAVERY-FROM BEGINNING TO END
  In the 15th century, Europeans began to import slaves for the African continent. The discovery of the Americans increased the demand for cheap labor and therefore increased the slave trade. During the next 400 years, slave traders kidnapped about 15 million Negroes from Africa and sold them into slavery. When the American Civil War began in 1860, there were about 4.5 million Negroes in the United States, most of them slaves.
  The vast majority of Negro slaves lived in the South, where they worked in cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane fields. Most were uneducated, although a few were taught to read and write. Their African religious practices were discouraged, and they were converted to Christianity.
  The slaves suffered greatly, both physically and emotionally. They worked long hours in the fields. They lived in crowed, primitive houses. Some were the victims of cruel masters who abused them. Often, slave owners separated Negro families by selling a slave's husband, wife, or child. "Uncle Tom's Cabin", a famous novel about Southern slavery, emphasized these evils. The book aroused so much antislavery sentiment in the North that Abraham Lincoln said to its author, Harriet Beecher Stowe, "So you're the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war".
  The "great war" that Lincoln was talking about was, of course, the American Civil War, sometimes called the War between the States. Slavery "was the underlying cause of this war. The agricultural South depended on slave labor to work the fields of its large plantations. The industrialized North had no use for slave labour, and slavery was against the law there. Northerners considered slavery a great evil, and, in fact, some of them helped the Negroes escape from slavery to one of the free states. Whenever a new state wanted to enter the Union, the questions of whether it would be slave or free was raised. Finally, the South decided to leave the Union and become a separate country-the Confederate States of America. President Lincoln would not allow this. In order to keep the United States united, Lincoln led his nation into a civil war. The war ended in 1865 with the North victorious, the country reunited, and slavery abolished.
  In 1863, two years before the war ended, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including the right to vote.

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Today's American Indians call themselves Native Americans, but in reality they were not natives here. Rather, they were the area's earliest immigrants. They came to the Western Hemisphere from Asia more than 20,000 years ago. By the century, there were 15 to 20 million Indians in the Americas. Perhaps as many as 700,000 were living within the present limits of the United States when Columbus discovered the New World (the Western Hemisphere) in 1492.
  During the 1500s, French and Spanish explorers visited the New World. But the first Europeans who came to stay were English. The first permanent colony in the U.S.A. was established in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 by 104 British colonists. In 1620, a second British colony, consisting of 102 people, was founded in Plymouth, Massachusetts. These were the beginning of a nation that, by 1988, had grown to 244 million.
  In 1790, the white population of the 13 original states totaled slightly more than three milion. About 75% of these first Americans were of British ancestry; the rest were German, Dutch, French, Swiss, and Spanish. The British gave the new nation its language, laws, and philosophy of government.

 Immigration From 1790 To 1920

  American independence did not immediately stimulate immigragtion. Between 1790 and 1840, more than four million arrived. They came primarily from Ireland, England, Germany, and France. Potato crop failures in Ireland stimulated Irish immigration. Germans came to escape economic and political difficulties. During the last half of the 9th century, many Scandinavians came, attracted by good farmland. The Industrial Revolution and the Westward Movement gave new immigrants a vital role in the nation's economic development. Employers who needed factory workers and landowners who wanted tenants for western lands sent agents to Europe to "sell" America. Agents of steamship lines and railroad companies atracted thousands of immigrants with fabulous stories about the land of opportunity.
  Immigration took another great leap after 1880. Between 1887 and 1920, 23.5 million aliens were admitted. Nearly 90% of these newcomers were from Europe. After 1882, the government kept Asian immigration to a minimum because American workers feared that new Asian immigrants would threaten their jobs and lower their wages.

 Immigration Since 1920
  During World War I, immigration declined due to traveling difficulties. After the war, Europeans once again began crowding aboard ships to the United States. But American industry no longer needed them. During the 1920s, Congress passed the first quota law that limited the number of European immigrants.
  From 1930 to 1945, legal limits and World War II kept immigration to a minimum. When the war ended, immigration rose sharply because entrance was allowed to millions of people left homeless by the war. Special legislation admitted large numbers of displaced persons, refugees, and orphans, as well as war brides. From time to time since then, the United States has lifted immigration restrictions to accomodate, refugees and ease suffering in other parts of the world.
  At present, there is a ceiling on immigration, allowing for 270,000 immigrants to be admitted to the U.S.A. anually, no more than 20,000 from any one country. However, during the 1980s, the number of immigrants annually admitted each year always exceeded 500,000 because certain categories of applicants were excluded from the numerical limitations. These exemptions included the parents, spouses, or minor children of U.S. citizens.
  Immigration restrictions may seem cruel to those who are living in difficult circumstances elsewhere, but they have become necessary because, in the century, the United States' population has grown at a very rapid rate. In 1915, the population reached 100 million. Forty-two years later, it had doubled. A higher birth rate, lower infant mortality, and longer life expectancy had all combined to cause this population explosion. Today, Americans are having smaller families. However, the population is continuing to increase, and about 28% of this growth comes from immigration. Therefore, strict limits on immigration seem likely to continue.
  Who are today's immigrants? They are vastly different from earlier groups. Clearly, the ethic make-up of the United States is changing. From 1981 to 1985, immigration from Europe dropped to 11% of the total legal immigration, while Asia provided about 48% and Latin America about 35% of legal immigrants. In addition, about three-quarters of the illegal immigrants (about 500,000 per year) come from Latin America. If the current trends continue, experts predict that, by the year 2020, about 35% of Americans will be minority group members, primarily black, or Asian.

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  When an immigrant family moves to the U.S.A., one of the first questions that parents ask is, "Will my children get a good education here?" The answer depends on two major factors: When the children attend school and how hard they are willing to work.

  In some schools where the community is stable, the funding good and the school environment orderly, a hardworking student can get an excellent education. But in other schools-especially those in poor neighborhoods in the nation's large cities -it is very difficult to become educated. The flight of middle-class families to the suburbs left big city public shools with mostly lower-income students. Many are deprived children from impoverished homes with only one parent. Many come to school ill-prepared and poorly motivated to learn. A large number need help in learning English.


Many change residences and school often, and a changing classroom population is difficult to teach. In some poor neighborhoods, the students do not attend school regularly because they are frightened by violent gangs. In some classrooms, teachers have difficulty keeping the students' attention because the disrespectful, uncooperative students disturb the class. Because the quality of education varies so much from one school district to another, parents who are planning to move to a new neighborhood often inquire about the schools - and even visit them - before deciding which community to move to.

  Researchers are always studying the schools and evaluating the kind of education being provided. Experts ask: "Are today's students learning as much as their older siblings or their parents did? Are they learning as much as students in other countries?" In the 1980s, many studies revealed weakness in the American educational system. For example, of the 158 members of the United Nations, the U.S.A. ranked 49th in its level of literacy. It has been claimed that as many as 25 million American adults cannot read the front page of a newspaper. Another study focused on students' knowledge of history and literature. The results were published in a book entitled, "What Do Our 17-Year-OIds Know?", and the answer is, "not much". For example, 75% of American high school seniors did not know when Abraham Lincoln was President, and 80% could not identify Dickens, Dostoyevsky and Ibsen as famous authors. In a 1988 study comparing students's knowledge of geography, American young adults came in last of nine countries. In fact, 18% of the American students couldn't even find the U.S.A on a world map! Still other studies indicate that today's students are weak in mathematical problem-solving and writing skills.
  What's wrong with American education? To find the answer and to fix the problem, one must look at all of the elements the students themselves, their parents, their teachers, the school curriculum, the textbooks, and the community. Many students simply do not study enough. (Two-thirds of high school seniors do an hour or less of homework per night.) American teenagers are often distracted by part-time jobs, sports and other school activities, TV, and socializing. Some do not keep up with their schoolwork because of emotional problems, use of illegal drugs, or simply lack of motivation. Clearly, if Americans are to become better educated, students must spend more time studying, and parents must insist that they do so.

  In the 1980s, criticism of American education stimulated a reform movement. As a result, 45 of the 50 states raised high-school graduation requirements. One government study recommended a longer school year. (Now, the average American student attends school about 180 days a year, compared to 210 for a Japanese student.) Efforts have also been underway to increase parental involvement in schools and to improve teaching. College programs that educate teachers are trying to encourage more academically talented students to choose teaching as a career. Schools of education are also improving their curriculum so that American teachers of the future will be better prepared. School administrators are working on curriculum revisions. Publishers are being urged to create textbooks that are more challenging, interesting, and objective. Finally, concerned citizens are urging communities and the federal government to provide more tax dollars for education.
  What can one say about basic education in the U.S.A. today? It has many strengths, but there's plenty of room for improvement. Since the school reform movement began, test scores have risen somewhat, and Americans are optimistic that reform and improvement will continue. Americans deeply believe in education as the best vehicle for individual and social advancement. Improving the basic school system is one of the nation's top priorities. But meanwhile, it is a consolation to remember that, for most young Americans, formal education does not end with high graduation.

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